PAPER NO. 82

DUALISM

  1. Dualism is the ontological position that there are two kinds of beings (substances)—matter and spirit—both of which are eternal. It is distinct from monism and from theism. Historical examples of dualism include:

    1. Greek—Plato and Aristotle
    2. Persian—Zoroastrianism
    3. Indian—Samkhya Yoga
    4. Mormonism—heterodox Christianity
  2. The appeal of dualism lies in it being the nearest logical alternative to material and spiritual monism, which avoids the same criticisms raised against both. It also offers a solution to the problem of evil, generally by locating the problem in matter vs. spirit.
  3. Objections to its appeal:

    1. If the soul is eternal, how can it go through a unique event, for example growth in knowledge, liberation, or attainment of heaven?
    2. If the soul is inherently good and eternal and independent of the body, why is it in an evil body?
    3. One can conceive of an evil spirit (the devil) or of evil not based in bodily needs (Eden).
  4. Dualistic attitudes are reflected in popular theism in several ways:

    1. The world is evil; one should flee it or avoid it—monastic withdrawal, ascetic distrust of the sensuous, celibacy as a higher spiritual state.
    2. The world is corruptible especially in the sins of the flesh and must be guarded against (vs. evil as disregard of reason).
    3. The world is morally neutral in its basic institutional structures; personal piety is all that is needed.
    4. The world is good as the creation of God, but not as good as the world to come—heaven.
  5. A philosophical alternative to dualistic otherworldliness of popular theism is to regard creation and history as revelation of the divine nature, the source of the knowledge of God, which is the greatest good, and the goal of reading this revelation is that “the earth shall be full of the knowledge of God as the waters cover the sea.” No other revelation exists.
  6. Two forms of dualism:

    1. Ordinary dualism in which matter is eternal and independent of spirit—Plato.

The first argument against materialism holds against ordinary dualism (see Paper No. 78).

  1. Dependent dualism in which matter is eternal and dependent on spirit—Aristotle. 
  1. In accounting for change and permanence, Aristotle analyzes the world in terms of form and matter, potentiality and actuality. Matter without form is pure potentiality (an acorn is potentially a big oak tree). The source of all change is the Unmoved Mover, pure actuality, spirit without matter. The dilemma is: if matter has some actuality without spirit (then matter is independent), then it so far is ordinary dualism (matter not being self-maintaining refutes this), but if matter has no actuality without spirit, then matter would be created and temporal. The dilemma has to figure out the relationship between matter and the Unmoved Mover.

This paper was originally developed for an Introduction to Philosophy course.


© 1992 Logos Papers Press